The Great Wall of China
introduction of ''the Great wall of china''
The Great Wall of China, a massive structure built in ancient China, is one of the greatest construction projects of all time. The Great Wall is actually made up of many walls, many of them parallel to each other, built over nearly two millennia in northern China and southern Mongolia. The widest and best-preserved version of the wall dates from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and stretches approximately 5,500 miles (8,850 km) east to west from Mount Ho near Dandong in southeastern Liaoning Province to the Jiao Pass west of Jiuquan. Gansu Province The Huai Wall follows the pattern of hills and mountain peaks as it passes through the Chinese countryside, and about a quarter of its length consists of natural barriers such as rivers and mountain peaks. Almost all of the rest (about 70 percent of the total length) are actually built walls, the rest pits or ditches. Although long stretches of the wall are now in ruins or completely gone, it remains one of the most important structures.
Large parts of the fortification system have been started since the birth of Christ. In the seventh and fourth centuries. In the 3rd century, Qin Shihuang, the first emperor of unified China (Qing Dynasty), combined several existing defensive walls into one system. Traditionally, the eastern end of the wall is Shanghai Pass (Shanghaiguan) on the coast of Bu Hai (Kihili Bay) in eastern Hebei Province, which is believed to be the length of the wall without branches and other small parts. It stretches about 4,160 miles (6,700 km). However, government-sponsored investigations that began in the 1990s found parts of the wall in Liaoning, and aerial and satellite monitoring confirmed that the wall continued to run through most of the province. The total length of the Ming Tower was announced in 2009.
Large parts of the fortification system have been started since the birth of Christ. In the seventh and fourth centuries. In the 3rd century, Qin Shihuang, the first emperor of unified China (Qing Dynasty), combined several existing defensive walls into one system. Traditionally, the eastern end of the wall is Shanghai Pass (Shanghaiguan) on the coast of Bu Hai (Kihili Bay) in eastern Hebei Province, which is believed to be the length of the wall without branches and other small parts. It stretches about 4,160 miles (6,700 km). However, government-sponsored investigations that began in the 1990s found parts of the wall in Liaoning, and aerial and satellite monitoring confirmed that the wall continued to run through most of the province. The total length of the Ming Tower was announced in 2009.
Construction history
construction history of the China Wall.
The Great Wall was built from various border forts and fortifications of Chinese kingdoms. For centuries these kingdoms were concerned as much with the defense of their immediate neighbors as against barbarian invasion or the threat of invasion.
Early construction
Around the 7th century BC, the state of Chu began to build a permanent defense system. This fortification, known as the "square wall", is located in the northern part of the kingdom's capital. From the sixth to fourth centuries, other countries followed the Zhou example. A huge ocean wall was gradually built in the southern part of Key State, using existing river dams, newly built forts, and impassable mountainous terrain. The Qi wall was mainly built of earth and stone and ended at the shore of the Yellow Sea. A wall system was built in Zhongshan Province to prevent invasion by Zhao and Qing provinces in the southwest. There were two lines of defense in Wei Province: the Walls of Hexi ("west of the [Yellow] River") and the Walls of Henan ("south of the river"). The Hexi Wall served as a barrier against the Qin State and Western nomads. It was built during the reign of King Hui (370-335 BC), and was expanded by damming the Luo River on the western border. It started in the south near Xiangyuan Cave, east of Mount Hua, and ended in Goyang, the present-day Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The Henan Wall, built to protect Dalian (the capital, now Kaifeng), was repaired and expanded during the final years of King Hui's reign. The Qin state also built a wall system, which the Han state rebuilt after it conquered the Qing. The state of Zhao completed the south and north walls. The southern wall was built mainly as a defense against the Wei state.
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| early construction of China of China wall. |
After the administrative reorganization by Shang Yang (died 338 BC), the state of Qin grew politically and militarily to become the most powerful of the Seven States but was repeatedly attacked from the north by two nomadic peoples, the Donghu and the Luofan. Therefore, the Qing Dynasty built a wall starting from Lintiao, running north along the Liupan Mountains and ending at the Huang He (Yellow River). In Yan State, two separate defensive lines, the Northern Wall and the Yishu Wall, were prepared to defend. the kingdom from attacks by northern groups such as Donghu, Linghu and Lufan, as well as the state of Qi. South of the Yishu Wall stretched from the banks of the Yi River as a line of defense against his main rivals, the Qi and Zhao. It started southwest of the Yi capital and ended south of Wen'an. In 290, the Yang state built the Northern Wall along the Yang Mountains, starting in the northeast of Zhangjiakou County in Hebei, passing through the Liao River and extending to the ancient city of Xiangping (present-day Liaoyang). It was the last part of the Great Wall of China, built during the Changwu (Warring States) period.
In 221 BC. Shihuangdi, the first emperor of Qin, completed the annexation of Qi and unified China. He ordered the removal of the forts spread among the earlier regions as they only served as a hindrance to movement and internal administration. In addition, he sent the general Meng Tian to the northern border to repel nomadic Xiongnu invasions and built sections of the wall in Qin, Yan and Zhao along the so-called "10,000 Li Long Wall" (2 li is about 0.6 miles) (1 km ). This period of construction began around 214 BC. It lasted for ten years. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers and conscripts worked on the project. After Shihuangdi's death, the Qin dynasty collapsed, but the wall remained largely intact and in disrepair.
In 221 BC. Shihuangdi, the first emperor of Qin, completed the annexation of Qi and unified China. He ordered the removal of the forts spread among the earlier regions as they only served as a hindrance to movement and internal administration. In addition, he sent the general Meng Tian to the northern border to repel nomadic Xiongnu invasions and built sections of the wall in Qin, Yan and Zhao along the so-called "10,000 Li Long Wall" (2 li is about 0.6 miles) (1 km ). This period of construction began around 214 BC. It lasted for ten years. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers and conscripts worked on the project. After Shihuangdi's death, the Qin dynasty collapsed, but the wall remained largely intact and in disrepair.
Han during the Yuan Dynasty
During the reign of the Han Emperor Wu (141-87 BC), the wall was strengthened as part of a general campaign against the Xiongnu. Since then, the Great Wall has contributed to the exploitation of agricultural land in the north and west of China and the development of the trade route known as the Silk Road. In 121 BC, a 20-year construction project began on the Hexi Wall (commonly known as the Side Wall) between Yongdeng (now in Gansu) and West Lop Nur Lake (now in Xinjiang). According to Zhuan Hanjian ("The Message of Zhuan Han"), among the fortifications placed on the wall were "a lamp every 5 li, a tower every 10 li, a fort every 30 li, and a castle every 100 li."
During the Dong (Eastern) Han period (25-220 AD), the main work on the wall was done during the reign of Liu Xiu (Guangudi), who ordered the restoration of the four parallel lines of the Great Wall in the southern area has. in 38. Hexi wall. The Great Wall served not only for defense but also as a center for trade and travel control.
During the Bei (Northern) Wei Dynasty (386-534/535 AD), the Great Wall was repaired and expanded to protect against attacks from the Yuan-Juan and Khitan tribes to the north. According to Wei Shu. According to the Minyuandi Ji ("History of Wei: Chronicle of Emperor Minyuan") in 417, during the Eighth Dynasty of Minyuandi (409-423), a section of the Great Wall was built south of Changchun from Chicheng. (now in Hebei) to Wuyun (now in Inner Mongolia), extending over 620 miles (1,000 km) to the west. During the reign of Taywudi (423-452 AD), a lower, thin earthen wall was built around the capital to complement the Great Wall. It formed a circle around Datong, from Guangling in the east to Huang He. In 549 AD, after the Dongwei Empire moved its capital to Yo, he built a section of the Great Wall in what is now Shaanxi Province.
To fortify its northern borders and prevent the Bai Zhou from invading from the west, the Bai Qi Dynasty (550-577) initiated several large-scale construction projects on much the same scale as the Qing Dynasty. In 552 a section of the western border was built, and three years later the emperor ordered the hiring of 1.8 million men to repair and expand other areas. Built at the southern entrance between Juyong Pass (near modern Beijing) and Datong (in Shaanxi). In 556, a new fortress was built on the eastern side and extended to the Yellow Sea. The following year, a second wall was built inside the Great Wall of China in modern-day Shanxi, beginning east of Bianguan in Laoying, extending east beyond the Yanmen Corridor and Pingxin Corridor, and ending around Xiaguan in Shanxi. In 563 CE, Emperor Wuchendi of Bei Qi repaired this section of the Taihan Mountains. This is the site of the Great Wall of China, located today in Longguan, Guanchang and Fuping (in Shaanxi and Hebei). In 565, the inner wall built in 557 was repaired and a new one was added, beginning around Xiaoguan, running east to Juyong Pass, and joining the outer wall. During the Bai Qi period, the total number of repaired and added sections was about 1,500 km, and cities and barracks were constantly established to fortify new sections. In 579, in order to prevent the Tuju (a group of Eastern Turks) and the Khitan from invading the Bei Zhou Kingdom, Emperor Jing began a massive construction campaign in the walled areas of the former Bei Qi Kingdom, starting from Yanmen. on the west and ends at Jixi on the east.During the Sui Dynasty (581-618), the Great Wall was repaired and improved seven times to protect the city from the ravages of the Tojo. The Tang Dynasty (618-907) succeeded the Sui Dynasty, and the country strengthened its military power, defeating the Tuzhou tribe in the north and expanding beyond its original borders. As a result, the Great Wall gradually lost its status as a fortress that needed no repairs or additions. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), however, it was constantly threatened by the northern Liao and Jin. The Song rulers were forced to retreat south following the Great Wall built by the Qin, Han and Northern dynasties. Most of the land on both sides of the wall was later conquered by the Liao Dynasty (907–1125) and the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234). When the Song rulers were forced to retreat further south from the Yangtze (Zhangjiang), there was no more wall repair or expansion. Some improvements were made once (1056) in the Liao period, but only between the Yazi and Hongtong rivers.After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty in 1115, two defensive lines were constructed at Mingchang. The ancient wall there, once called the Wushu Wall or Jinyuan Castle, ran west from a point north of Ulanhada, then passed through the Hailatu Mountains, then turned north and west again, finally ending at the Nuanshui River. The second part was the New Mingchang Wall, also called the Inner Jin Wall or Jin Moat, built south of the Old Wall. It begins in the west, cut by the Huang He River, and ends at the Songari (Songhua) River. During the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty (1206–1368), the Mongols controlled all of China, as well as parts of Asia and Europe. As a defensive structure, the Great Wall meant nothing to them; However, some major fortresses and areas were renovated and strengthened to control trade and prevent rebellions among the (Han) Chinese and other nationalities.
During the Dong (Eastern) Han period (25-220 AD), the main work on the wall was done during the reign of Liu Xiu (Guangudi), who ordered the restoration of the four parallel lines of the Great Wall in the southern area has. in 38. Hexi wall. The Great Wall served not only for defense but also as a center for trade and travel control.
During the Bei (Northern) Wei Dynasty (386-534/535 AD), the Great Wall was repaired and expanded to protect against attacks from the Yuan-Juan and Khitan tribes to the north. According to Wei Shu. According to the Minyuandi Ji ("History of Wei: Chronicle of Emperor Minyuan") in 417, during the Eighth Dynasty of Minyuandi (409-423), a section of the Great Wall was built south of Changchun from Chicheng. (now in Hebei) to Wuyun (now in Inner Mongolia), extending over 620 miles (1,000 km) to the west. During the reign of Taywudi (423-452 AD), a lower, thin earthen wall was built around the capital to complement the Great Wall. It formed a circle around Datong, from Guangling in the east to Huang He. In 549 AD, after the Dongwei Empire moved its capital to Yo, he built a section of the Great Wall in what is now Shaanxi Province.
To fortify its northern borders and prevent the Bai Zhou from invading from the west, the Bai Qi Dynasty (550-577) initiated several large-scale construction projects on much the same scale as the Qing Dynasty. In 552 a section of the western border was built, and three years later the emperor ordered the hiring of 1.8 million men to repair and expand other areas. Built at the southern entrance between Juyong Pass (near modern Beijing) and Datong (in Shaanxi). In 556, a new fortress was built on the eastern side and extended to the Yellow Sea. The following year, a second wall was built inside the Great Wall of China in modern-day Shanxi, beginning east of Bianguan in Laoying, extending east beyond the Yanmen Corridor and Pingxin Corridor, and ending around Xiaguan in Shanxi. In 563 CE, Emperor Wuchendi of Bei Qi repaired this section of the Taihan Mountains. This is the site of the Great Wall of China, located today in Longguan, Guanchang and Fuping (in Shaanxi and Hebei). In 565, the inner wall built in 557 was repaired and a new one was added, beginning around Xiaoguan, running east to Juyong Pass, and joining the outer wall. During the Bai Qi period, the total number of repaired and added sections was about 1,500 km, and cities and barracks were constantly established to fortify new sections. In 579, in order to prevent the Tuju (a group of Eastern Turks) and the Khitan from invading the Bei Zhou Kingdom, Emperor Jing began a massive construction campaign in the walled areas of the former Bei Qi Kingdom, starting from Yanmen. on the west and ends at Jixi on the east.During the Sui Dynasty (581-618), the Great Wall was repaired and improved seven times to protect the city from the ravages of the Tojo. The Tang Dynasty (618-907) succeeded the Sui Dynasty, and the country strengthened its military power, defeating the Tuzhou tribe in the north and expanding beyond its original borders. As a result, the Great Wall gradually lost its status as a fortress that needed no repairs or additions. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), however, it was constantly threatened by the northern Liao and Jin. The Song rulers were forced to retreat south following the Great Wall built by the Qin, Han and Northern dynasties. Most of the land on both sides of the wall was later conquered by the Liao Dynasty (907–1125) and the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234). When the Song rulers were forced to retreat further south from the Yangtze (Zhangjiang), there was no more wall repair or expansion. Some improvements were made once (1056) in the Liao period, but only between the Yazi and Hongtong rivers.After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty in 1115, two defensive lines were constructed at Mingchang. The ancient wall there, once called the Wushu Wall or Jinyuan Castle, ran west from a point north of Ulanhada, then passed through the Hailatu Mountains, then turned north and west again, finally ending at the Nuanshui River. The second part was the New Mingchang Wall, also called the Inner Jin Wall or Jin Moat, built south of the Old Wall. It begins in the west, cut by the Huang He River, and ends at the Songari (Songhua) River. During the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty (1206–1368), the Mongols controlled all of China, as well as parts of Asia and Europe. As a defensive structure, the Great Wall meant nothing to them; However, some major fortresses and areas were renovated and strengthened to control trade and prevent rebellions among the (Han) Chinese and other nationalities.
Design of Forts
The Great Wall of China consists of three main components: passageways, signal towers (beacons), and walls.
passes
Passages were large walled forts, usually located at important points such as intersections of trade routes. The walls of many passages were faced with large bricks and stones, filled with mud and crushed stone. The basins are 30 feet (10 m) long and 13 to 16 feet (4 to 5 m) wide at the top. Each pass had ramps for horses and soldiers. The outer parapet was covered with cranes, and the inner parapet, or nokiang, was a low wall 3 feet (1 m) high that prevented men and horses from falling. In addition to serving as an access point for merchants and other citizens, the gate in the gateway served as an exit for workers to repel attackers or send out guards. Under the arch of the door was usually a large double wooden door. Bolts and lock rings are provided inside each door. Each gate had a gate tower that served as a guard and command post. It was usually one to three stories high and made of wood or brick and timber. Built outside the gate, where the enemy could attack, was the wengcheng, a semicircular or polygonal slab that protected the gate from direct attack. Extending from the more strategic Wengcheng was an additional guard line, the Luocheng, who often mounted a tower that watched over the wall and directed troop movements in battles fought there. A moat was often created around the entrance of the gate in the process of excavating the earth for the construction of forts.
signal tower
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| signal tower of china wall. |
Signal towers were also called lighthouses, lighthouse terraces, smoke hills, mounds, or kiosks. They were used to transmit military communications; Other methods were also used, such as holding up banners, hitting or shooting cheerleaders. Signal towers, often built on hills for maximum visibility, were tall, freestanding platforms or towers. The lower floors contained soldiers' quarters, as well as stables, sheep pens, and storerooms.
Walls
The wall itself was an important part of the defense system. It is 6.5 m wide, 19 m (5.8 m) at the base and 19 m (5.8 m) at the top, and its height is 23 to 26 m (7 to 8 m) at average elevation or slightly lower in the mountains. Wall construction varies from place to place depending on the availability of building materials. The walls are made of boards, stone brick and brick, stone and stone or earth mixed with piles and slabs. Some units used existing riverbanks. Others used rugged mountain terrain such as cliffs and valleys instead of man-made structures.
In the western deserts there were often simple buildings of earth and mud; Many of the eastern walls, for example near Badaling, were made of stone, and there were many secondary structures and tools. On the inside of these walls, arched doors are placed in small areas made of brick or stone. Under each door were stone or brick steps leading to the top of the pond. At the top, 7-foot (2 m) hooks called dukuku extend outward. The upper part of the duku contains large openings used for firing to see the attackers, while the lower part has smaller openings or gaps through which the defenders can engage the soldiers. At a distance of 650 to 1,000 yards (200 to 300 meters), a pointed platform rose a little above the wall and rose from its side, facing the attacking forces. During the battle, the platform was commanding and allowed attackers to shoot from the side as they tried to scale the wall. Bufang huts were built on several platforms to house the guards during storms. Some platforms, such as signal towers, are two or three stories high and may be used to store weapons and ammunition. The Badaling had two floors, with more than 10 soldiers usually housed on the lower floor. The walls are equipped with drainage channels to prevent excessive rainwater from damaging the walls.
In the western deserts there were often simple buildings of earth and mud; Many of the eastern walls, for example near Badaling, were made of stone, and there were many secondary structures and tools. On the inside of these walls, arched doors are placed in small areas made of brick or stone. Under each door were stone or brick steps leading to the top of the pond. At the top, 7-foot (2 m) hooks called dukuku extend outward. The upper part of the duku contains large openings used for firing to see the attackers, while the lower part has smaller openings or gaps through which the defenders can engage the soldiers. At a distance of 650 to 1,000 yards (200 to 300 meters), a pointed platform rose a little above the wall and rose from its side, facing the attacking forces. During the battle, the platform was commanding and allowed attackers to shoot from the side as they tried to scale the wall. Bufang huts were built on several platforms to house the guards during storms. Some platforms, such as signal towers, are two or three stories high and may be used to store weapons and ammunition. The Badaling had two floors, with more than 10 soldiers usually housed on the lower floor. The walls are equipped with drainage channels to prevent excessive rainwater from damaging the walls.
Military administration
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| Military administration of China. |
Each major fortress along the wall was hierarchically linked to a network of military and administrative commands. During Shihuangdi's reign, 12 provinces were established along the wall, and in Ming times, the entire fortress was divided into 9 districts or defense zones. A different leader (zongbingguan) was appointed for each district. Together they were known as the Nine Frontier Garrisons.
Tradition and preservation
T
he Great Wall has long been embedded in Chinese mythology and folk symbolism and became a national symbol in the 20th century. Above the East Gate (Dongmen) of the Shanghai Pass is an inscription attributed to the medieval historian Xiao Jiang that translates as "The First Way Under Heaven," a reference to the traditional division between Chinese civilization and the barbarian lands to the north. Despite the wall's cultural significance, roads have been cut through it at several points, and large sections have been neglected for centuries. In the 1970s, a section near Shimata (110 km northeast of Beijing) was demolished for construction materials, but was later rebuilt. Other areas have also been restored, including northwest of Joyu Pass on the wall's western border; Huangya Pass, about 105 miles (170 km) north of Tianjin; and at Mutianyu, about 55 miles (90 km) northeast of Beijing. The most famous section, at Badaling (70 km northwest of Beijing), was rebuilt in the late 1950s; Now it attracts thousands of local and foreign tourists every day. The Shanghai Pass and parts of the wall around the eastern end of Hu Mountain were also rebuilt in the 2000s.
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| Tradition and preservation of china wall. |
The first years
Zhao Cheng was born the son of Zhuangxian (who later became the king of the state of Qing in northwestern China) while his father was held hostage in the state of Zhao. His mother was the former concubine of the wealthy merchant Lu Bui, who, for his own financial interests, was able to place Zhuangxiang on the throne, although he was not originally designated as the successor. The widely held tradition that Zheng was actually Lu Bu's natural son is probably a slanderous fabrication.
When 13-year-old Zhen ascended the throne in B.C. By 246, Qin was already a very powerful state and could unite the rest of China under its rule. The central powers considered Qin a barbarian state, but at that time its strong position in the western mountainous region (the center is located in the modern Shaanxi province) allowed Qin to create a strong bureaucratic state and military organization as a base. The philosophy of sovereignty known as legalism.
The kingdom was ruled by Lu Bui until his death was officially announced in 238. Zeng's first act as king was to join the opposition, kill his mother's lover, and exile Lu, who was involved in the affair. The edict ordering the expulsion of all foreigners and depriving the king of his most powerful advisers was later rescinded at the insistence of Grand Chancellor Li Xi. In 221 AD, through espionage, extensive bribery, and the effective leadership of ruthless generals, Zeng eliminated one by one the six rival kingdoms that made up China at the time, defeating the last enemy state, Qi, in AD 221. in the year 221. The final victory was achieved in 221. China was united for the first time during the Qing Dynasty.
When 13-year-old Zhen ascended the throne in B.C. By 246, Qin was already a very powerful state and could unite the rest of China under its rule. The central powers considered Qin a barbarian state, but at that time its strong position in the western mountainous region (the center is located in the modern Shaanxi province) allowed Qin to create a strong bureaucratic state and military organization as a base. The philosophy of sovereignty known as legalism.
The kingdom was ruled by Lu Bui until his death was officially announced in 238. Zeng's first act as king was to join the opposition, kill his mother's lover, and exile Lu, who was involved in the affair. The edict ordering the expulsion of all foreigners and depriving the king of his most powerful advisers was later rescinded at the insistence of Grand Chancellor Li Xi. In 221 AD, through espionage, extensive bribery, and the effective leadership of ruthless generals, Zeng eliminated one by one the six rival kingdoms that made up China at the time, defeating the last enemy state, Qi, in AD 221. in the year 221. The final victory was achieved in 221. China was united for the first time during the Qing Dynasty.
Emperor of China
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| emperor of china wall. |
To announce his achievement, Zheng assumed the sacred titles of legendary rulers and proclaimed himself Qin Shi Huang ("First Sovereign Emperor"). With boundless confidence, he claimed that his lineage would last for "10,000 generations." As emperor, he introduced a series of reforms to introduce complete centralization and prevent the emergence of independent officials. Following Qin's example and Li Xi's ideas, he abolished the state feudal authority in the state, forced the rich and noble families to live in the capital Xianyang, and divided the country into 36 military districts, each with its own military and civilian governors. He also issued an order for almost universal standardization - the written language and rules of weight, dimensions and axle length of carts. Construction began on the road and canal network, and the Great Wall was attached to the fortifications built to protect against barbarian invasions from the north.
In 220, Qin Shi Huang undertook the first of a series of imperial inspection tours that would characterize the remaining ten years of his reign. While he oversaw the unification and organization of the empire, he did not fail to make sacrifices at various shrines, proclaim to the gods that he had finally unified the empire, and erect stone tablets with ritual inscriptions to glorify his achievements. Qin Shi Huang's travels were fueled by his interest in magic and alchemy and his search for masters of these arts who could provide him with the elixir of immortality. After the failure of a similar expedition to the Baltic islands, possibly Japan, in 219 AD, the emperor repeatedly summoned sorcerers to his court. Confucian scholars strongly condemned this move as witchcraft and 460 of them were executed for dissent. The ongoing debate between the emperor and Confucian scholars who favored a return to the old feudal system culminated in the famous book burning of 213, in which all books unrelated to agriculture, medicine, or prophecy were burned at Li Xi's suggestion . With the exception of Keane's Historical Records and Imperial Library Books.
The last years of Qin Shi Huang's life were dominated by an ever-increasing distrust of those around him, with at least three near-successful assassination attempts and his increasing isolation from the common people. In his vast palaces, the almost inaccessible emperor led the life of a semi-divine being. In 210, Qin Shi Huang died on a tour of inspection. He was buried in a giant burial complex that was carved out of the mountain and shaped into symbolic patterns of the universe. (Excavations of this vast complex of about 50 square kilometers, now known as the Tomb of Qin, began in 1974, and in 1987 the complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Among the finds were about 8,000. Soldiers life-size terracottas and horses. figures forming an "army" for the dead king.) The disappearance of Qin Shi Huang's powerful personality immediately led to the outbreak of fighting between supporters of the old feudal factions, which ended in the country's collapse . The Qing Dynasty and the destruction of the entire imperial clan by 206 AD.Much of the information about Qin Shi Huang's life comes from a descendant in the Han dynasty, who valued Confucian studies and thus had an interest in disparaging the Qin period. The report that Qin Shi Huang was the illegitimate son of Liu Buwei is probably an invention of that era. Moreover, the stories describing his excessive cruelty and the general defamation of his character must be seen in the light of the distaste the eventually victorious Confucians felt for legitimate philosophy in general.Qin Shi Huang certainly had an influential personality and displayed an indomitable will in pursuing his goal of unifying and consolidating the empire. His dictatorial rule and the draconian punishments he administered were largely dictated by his belief in legalistic ideas. With few exceptions, the traditional historiography of Imperial China sees it as extremely evil, inhuman, uncivilized, and superstitious. Modern historians, however, generally emphasize the durability of the bureaucratic and administrative structure established by Qin Shi Huang, which, despite official denials, remained the foundation of all subsequent Chinese dynasties.
China, a country in East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries. It covers almost the entire landmass of East Asia, covers about fourteenth of the Earth's surface and is as large as all of Europe. By 2023, the United Nations estimates that it will surpass China as one of the world's most populous countries, surpassed only by India.China has 33 administrative divisions directly under the central government; These are 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (Chongqing, Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The island state of Taiwan, which has been under its own administration since 1949, is described in the title of Taiwan. Beijing, the capital of the People's Republic of China, is the country's cultural, economic and communications center. Shanghai is a major industrial city; Hong Kong is a leading commercial center and port.
Within China's borders lies an extremely diverse and complex country. Its topography includes one of the highest and lowest points on Earth, and the relief varies from almost entirely mountainous terrain to vast coastal plains. The climate ranges from extremely dry and desert-like conditions in the northwest to hot winters in the southeast, and China has the largest temperature difference between the northern and southern borders of any country in the world.
In 220, Qin Shi Huang undertook the first of a series of imperial inspection tours that would characterize the remaining ten years of his reign. While he oversaw the unification and organization of the empire, he did not fail to make sacrifices at various shrines, proclaim to the gods that he had finally unified the empire, and erect stone tablets with ritual inscriptions to glorify his achievements. Qin Shi Huang's travels were fueled by his interest in magic and alchemy and his search for masters of these arts who could provide him with the elixir of immortality. After the failure of a similar expedition to the Baltic islands, possibly Japan, in 219 AD, the emperor repeatedly summoned sorcerers to his court. Confucian scholars strongly condemned this move as witchcraft and 460 of them were executed for dissent. The ongoing debate between the emperor and Confucian scholars who favored a return to the old feudal system culminated in the famous book burning of 213, in which all books unrelated to agriculture, medicine, or prophecy were burned at Li Xi's suggestion . With the exception of Keane's Historical Records and Imperial Library Books.
The last years of Qin Shi Huang's life were dominated by an ever-increasing distrust of those around him, with at least three near-successful assassination attempts and his increasing isolation from the common people. In his vast palaces, the almost inaccessible emperor led the life of a semi-divine being. In 210, Qin Shi Huang died on a tour of inspection. He was buried in a giant burial complex that was carved out of the mountain and shaped into symbolic patterns of the universe. (Excavations of this vast complex of about 50 square kilometers, now known as the Tomb of Qin, began in 1974, and in 1987 the complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Among the finds were about 8,000. Soldiers life-size terracottas and horses. figures forming an "army" for the dead king.) The disappearance of Qin Shi Huang's powerful personality immediately led to the outbreak of fighting between supporters of the old feudal factions, which ended in the country's collapse . The Qing Dynasty and the destruction of the entire imperial clan by 206 AD.Much of the information about Qin Shi Huang's life comes from a descendant in the Han dynasty, who valued Confucian studies and thus had an interest in disparaging the Qin period. The report that Qin Shi Huang was the illegitimate son of Liu Buwei is probably an invention of that era. Moreover, the stories describing his excessive cruelty and the general defamation of his character must be seen in the light of the distaste the eventually victorious Confucians felt for legitimate philosophy in general.Qin Shi Huang certainly had an influential personality and displayed an indomitable will in pursuing his goal of unifying and consolidating the empire. His dictatorial rule and the draconian punishments he administered were largely dictated by his belief in legalistic ideas. With few exceptions, the traditional historiography of Imperial China sees it as extremely evil, inhuman, uncivilized, and superstitious. Modern historians, however, generally emphasize the durability of the bureaucratic and administrative structure established by Qin Shi Huang, which, despite official denials, remained the foundation of all subsequent Chinese dynasties.
China, a country in East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries. It covers almost the entire landmass of East Asia, covers about fourteenth of the Earth's surface and is as large as all of Europe. By 2023, the United Nations estimates that it will surpass China as one of the world's most populous countries, surpassed only by India.China has 33 administrative divisions directly under the central government; These are 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (Chongqing, Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The island state of Taiwan, which has been under its own administration since 1949, is described in the title of Taiwan. Beijing, the capital of the People's Republic of China, is the country's cultural, economic and communications center. Shanghai is a major industrial city; Hong Kong is a leading commercial center and port.
Within China's borders lies an extremely diverse and complex country. Its topography includes one of the highest and lowest points on Earth, and the relief varies from almost entirely mountainous terrain to vast coastal plains. The climate ranges from extremely dry and desert-like conditions in the northwest to hot winters in the southeast, and China has the largest temperature difference between the northern and southern borders of any country in the world.
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